Spotlight

This Spotlight was written in consultation with the Northern Territory Department of Education and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. AITSL acknowledges the valuable insight and contribution to this Spotlight.

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples are advised that this publication may contain the names and images of deceased people.

Introduction

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators play a significant role in the communities in which they live and work due to their deep understanding of the local context, languages, histories and cultures. According to the 2016 census, there were 9,184 fully qualified and registered Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander teachers, making up a little over 2% of the teaching population (ACDE, 2018). The teaching workforce is supported by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators, who are particularly important in schools that have no Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander teachers, or who have a high proportion of Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander students.

Across Australia, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators are varyingly referred to depending on the context in which they work, and the state or territory they work in. For example, Assistant Teacher is used in current Northern Territory employment agreements for government schools to describe “a person of Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander descent who has been employed to assist in a teaching capacity in a school, a Community Education Centre or a Homeland Learning Centre, which is usually located within an Aboriginal community” (OCPE 2018, p. 5). This Spotlight largely draws on the Northern Territory context, where 40% of students are of Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander descent.

In Western Australia, the term Aboriginal and Islander Education Officer (AIEO) is used to describe staff who support Aboriginal students in the classroom and in Queensland these staff are referred to as Community Education Counselors (CEC). Koorie Engagement Support Officers (KESOs) are an important support for Aboriginal students in the Victorian state education system and in South Australia, Aboriginal community education officers (ACEOs) support individual Aboriginal students and their families within the school and preschool community. This Spotlight uses the term ‘Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators’ to refer to Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander staff who work alongside registered classroom teachers to team-teach students in schools with high numbers of Indigenous Australians.

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators work in partnership with classroom teachers, combining knowledge and practice with specific community understanding. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators often work in schools[1] within culturally rich communities. A high proportion of students may have one or more first languages that are different to the language of instruction. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators who speak community languages, as well as Standard Australian English, are employed to work with students and their classroom teachers, and are highly valued for their skills in the translation of both language and culture. In Australia, the work of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators is particularly important in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities.

Why we need Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators

The Mparntwe Education Declaration sets this important goal:

It is particularly important for rural and remote schools to recruit and retain qualified teachers with the right attributes to positively contribute to a collaborative partnership approach that will achieve quality student outcomes. Estimates suggest 66% of remote school principals find it difficult to fill staff vacancies, compared to 39% of principals at metropolitan secondary schools (Productivity Commission 2012). This is even more difficult for schools in remote Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities, where teachers frequently report feeling isolated while dealing with the ‘always on’ challenge of teaching and living in a bilingual and bicultural community (White et al. 2008). There is generally a higher turnover of teachers in these schools when compared to urban schools, thereby making Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators the stable presence for students in these learning environments.

As well as supporting their students in the key areas of learning, culture and community, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators are role models for post-school transition and pathways. The complex and interconnected components of their role relate to the essential elements of identity, well-being and belonging.

In practice, the precise role of an Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educator will vary greatly depending on the needs and priorities of their school. Some roles may relate mainly to student learning support across learning areas, while others focus more on cultural teaching and learning. While the specifics of roles and responsibilities may vary, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators bring a cultural lens and significant social capital to education settings, which often includes teaching in local languages. Pastoral care, family support and community liaison are also crucial aspects of many roles, to facilitate genuine connection with communities and families. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators often also provide professional learning for non-Indigenous teachers, including formal induction processes or mentorship, or post-school follow-up with students enrolled in further education. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators work with teaching partners, such as classroom teachers, community members and school visitors, to provide culturally responsive educational experiences that enable students to engage with and access the curriculum, participate in learning and achieve positive learning outcomes.

Community members have been involved in classroom roles in schools in most Australian states and territories for over 40 years, however, there remains limited written research about their contribution to student learning. The voice of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators has also been missing in research until recently (Armour 2016). International studies of similar roles provide emerging evidence that they contribute to improvements in student achievement. This is particularly associated with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators working well alongside teachers in designing and providing contextualised learning support.

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators speak community languages

Across Australia, there are over 250 different Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages, many of which have several dialects (AIATSIS n.d.). Data from the 2009 Australian Early Development Index indicates that three quarters of five-year-old children enrolled in their first year of full-time schooling in the Northern Territory have language backgrounds other than English (Silburn et al. 2011). A 2011/2012 Australian Government inquiry into language learning in Indigenous communities found that using Indigenous languages in the early years of education is linked to improved attendance and community engagement.

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators are essential to the implementation of the Northern Territory’s Indigenous Languages and Culture Policy (NTBOS 2017). This policy encourages students to communicate in Indigenous languages, and learn about associated knowledge systems and cultures.

In the Northern Territory specifically, Aboriginal Assistant Teachers’ responsibilities include:

• Advising on cultural protocols for engaging with Elders and Traditional Owners and teaching language and culture
• Participating in ‘planning together’ sessions to assist with the development of the Indigenous Languages and Cultures (ILC) program scope and sequence, units of work and lesson plans
• Collaboratively teaching or leading delivery of ILC lessons
• Working in a teaching team to assess and maintain records of student progress and achievement
• Engaging in professional learning in accordance with their professional growth plan (Department of Education 2017, p. 12).

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators are role models

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators have opportunities to enter the school workforce in a number of ways, for example directly from school or as community Elders. They may enter with a qualification or engage in accredited training throughout their career progression. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators demonstrate to young people, their families and communities the benefits of continued learning.

This issue was the focus of a study conducted in the Northern Territory, New South Wales and Victoria, investigating what Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators see as enablers and barriers to post-school education. The study found it was often difficult for community and family members, who had negative experiences during their own schooling, to go to the school and engage meaningfully with the school community. This could reinforce a disconnect across community, family and the school. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators reported the need to help community members negotiate education bureaucracy, particularly at a distance, and in some cases to offer post-school support to former students. To help combat this, past students were asked to talk to the school community about the courses they were undertaking or jobs they were working in (Gruppetta et al. 2018).

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators belong to the education profession

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators work under different state and territory awards that do not require them to hold full teacher registration. Education in Australia is a shared federal and state responsibility with state and territory teacher regulatory authorities managing the requirements to be a teacher in their jurisdiction. While 5.7% of all students in Australia are from Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Island backgrounds, only 2% of registered teachers are (AITSL, 2019). This discrepancy, combined with the diversity and richness of Indigenous communities in Australia and the vast distances between communities, means Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators are vital to meet student and community needs.

The Northern Territory is currently reviewing its  career pathway for assistant teachers, from entry level requiring no qualifications through certificate and diploma levels of the Australian Qualifications Framework, up to Level 5 which requires an Advanced Diploma or equivalent.

The graphic in Figure 1 provides an overview of the Northern Territory assistant teacher career pathway.

A 2013 review of Indigenous education in the Northern Territory recommended that assistant teachers should have employment and performance management arrangements consistent with those of other staff to ensure their roles and responsibilities are understood and supported by all school staff, particularly classroom teachers (Wilson 2014). The Northern Territory Government responded to recommendations in 2016 by refining the Assistant Teacher Professional Standards and developing Professional Growth Plans and Induction resources for Assistant Teachers.

Working together

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators traditionally work in schools with unique, site-specific qualities, that are very different to urban schools. They quite often work with a teacher whose experience is limited to mainstream schools, with minimal understanding of the school’s unique context, and who are new to the cultural context of the community. Building a productive way of working as a team is critical to the success of the partnership between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators and their teacher colleagues.

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators also work with other professionals, parents, carers and outside agencies as well as with students. Collaborative qualities and skills are an important and distinctive part of their role. Given the challenges in educational continuity in remote communities, due largely to high rates of teacher turnover, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators represent a fundamental point of engagement (Cooper 2008).

Becoming an effective teaching team takes time. These teams are most effective when educators plan together and employ a team-teaching approach. The following list of characteristics is helpful to guide effective team-teaching practices.

Cultural responsiveness is everyone’s responsibility

In Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities, the teaching team must be grounded in an approach that is culturally responsive and pedagogically strong. This helps to ensure that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators are empowered to link culturally relevant knowledge with contemporary curriculum and pedagogical knowledge. Team-teaching practices shared by classroom teachers and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators help to ensure that classroom teachers are able to gain understandings of Indigenous ways of being, knowing and doing and to incorporate these into their teaching practice, thereby strengthening their practice.

Teachers coming into Aboriginal or the Torres Strait communities may require capacity building in how to live and work with their Indigenous colleagues and communities. This is a reciprocal process through which colleagues learn from each other and develop their team teaching practice. The willingness and disposition of teachers in a remote school to learn about the culture and language of the local community and develop productive working relationships underpins their capacity to both live and teach in a remote context (NT Government 2019). The provision of appropriate preparatory information, contextualised inductions and ongoing professional learning opportunities can all contribute to the quality, preparedness and resilience of teachers, especially in remote schools (Railton 2017).

Many factors contribute to the development of a culturally responsive teaching workforce. One of these is developing cultural competency within initial teacher courses. For teachers who find themselves working in a remote setting early in their career, opportunities for truly engaging with, and understanding the important role Aboriginal cultures and languages play in education are invaluable. For this reason, some initial teacher education providers encourage preservice teachers to complete a professional experience placement in a remote Indigenous community, thus increasing their understanding of Indigenous ways of knowing, being, and doing, and experience of working with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators (ACIL Allen 2018).

Leaders are responsible for effective induction and ongoing professional learning for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators and classroom teachers

School leaders play a crucial role in ensuring the status of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators as a core part of the school’s team of education professionals. The influence of the Principal goes well beyond employing Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators. It means sharing power and trusting the decisions that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators make about the children and community they know well. It requires an attitude that sees culture as foundational to balancing the priorities of the community as well as those of the education system.

Within an education department or system, governance support and leadership at the highest level is crucial to ensure the sustainability of this important and fragile ecosystem. For instance, system leaders should expect turnover and avoid over-reliance on individual staff members at all levels (Worley et al. 2019). Education systems can help Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators build a sense of collegiality and access support by finding ways for them to come together to support one another in formal and informal networks, including through induction processes. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators’ induction could also include content on curriculum and pedagogy, which would further enhance their capabilities for the benefit of all students.

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators are an integral part of the school workforce and working effectively with these staff members determines what difference they can make to student learning. This begins with induction. Research conducted with 82 remote Aboriginal Education Workers in Western Australia revealed that most received induction (73%) and training to assist them in their role (69%). The top two focuses of training were education support (small group and individual work) (62%) and behaviour management (57%). The researchers noted that only four respondents indicated that they had received training in the use of information and communication technologies for teaching (Jackson-Barrett et al. 2016). Relevant professional learning can form an important part of a holistic approach to professional development for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators as well as other teaching staff.

All teachers working with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators require appropriate capabilities to maximise the effectiveness of the team-teaching approach. The following list of ‘ten truths’ from the Diversity Council Australia & Jumbunna can inform and guide school leaders in ensuring the school is a culturally safe environment for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander employees.

The NT Assistant Teacher Professional Standards discussed above can provide school leaders with a tool to ensure the skills and knowledge of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators in their school are recognised and developed. Meeting these standards depends on school leaders being able to provide a climate that supports collaboration. Teachers and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators require support and opportunities to reflect on their own practice in order to identify professional learning needs.

Teachers for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities

The Review of Indigenous Education in the Northern Territory showed that Indigenous teachers and principals are under-represented in the workforce and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators are unevenly utilised and employed (Wilson 2014). The solutions to these workforce and educational issues are not simple and to ensure a quality workforce for all Australian students within their community requires a strong forging of policies, programs, resourcing, education and support.

Recruitment of potential teachers, particularly of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander descent, who may be prepared to go on to work in remote schools, may require new or alternative selection processes that try to predict who is likely to be suited to the role. Practical strategies include ensuring training programs accommodate the community and family pressures experienced by some students, which may affect their progress. Together with school leadership, some remote communities also take on the joint responsibility of identifying educators that may be suitable for their school, helping to ensure community agreement and support.

A Tasmanian study focused on ways to support Aboriginal Education Workers (AEWs) to become teachers. The researchers recommended that AEWs be provided with additional information on teaching courses and pathways, as well as personal development and paid study leave. Scholarships and recognition of prior learning could also help AEWs to overcome some of the barriers that prevent them from undertaking further education (Andersen, Gower & O’Dowd 2015).

The Review of Indigenous Education in the Northern Territory found that experienced Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators need support to gain further training or qualifications, whether VET or higher education (for example a teaching degree), given the distance necessary to travel from remote communities and, oftentimes, the time away from home required (Wilson 2014). Examples of programs aiming to alleviate these barriers, was the  Aboriginal ‘Growing Our Own’ model of teacher education, a joint Charles Darwin University and NT Catholic Education program and the currently running NT Department of Education Remote Aboriginal Teacher Education (RATE) program.

Supporting Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators to become teachers

Mainstream provision of Initial Teacher Education courses may not meet the needs of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators aspiring to become teachers. Several factors have been associated with successful programs for Remote Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adult learners, including:

• Cultural knowledge
• Learning on country
• Student motivation
• Personal empowerment with a transformative effect
• Flexible and adaptable trainers
• Training coordination and support
• Community and family support
• Peer relationships with other students
• Individual confidence and identity
• Strong foundational skills
• Local community ownership
• Funding security.

Established in 2009, the Growing Our Own project was a partnership between Charles Darwin University (CDU) and Catholic Education NT that aimed to deliver effective programs that address regional Indigenous needs. It operated in five regional areas in the NT. As part of the project, tertiary providers delivered courses to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators in their home communities and schools, supported by qualified non-Indigenous classroom teachers employed at the school (Maher 2013, p. 847). Between 2009 and 2016, 54 students participated in the project and 21 graduated. Of those, 90% are working as teachers (van Gelderen, 2017).

The development of grow your own programs gives communities access to local educators that have an in-depth understanding of the local languages, context and cultures. The medical profession faces the same ongoing challenge, and has its own ‘growing our own’ doctor initiative - a partnership between Flinders University, Charles Darwin University and the NT Government (Worley et al. 2019).

Challenges with the Growing Our Own program included:

• it took time for non-Indigenous lecturers to establish strong relationships with communities, schools, and students
• English literacy levels of some students proved a challenge and additional tuition was provided
• students all had significant demands on their time from within the communities within which they lived.

In 2019-20, over 200 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators were enrolled in training across the Northern Territory, most with the Batchelor Institute, a specialist in Aboriginal post-secondary education (Table 1).

Conclusion

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators bring valuable community and cultural knowledge and social capital to education settings. Schools that create environments which enable effective collaboration between classroom teachers and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators can maximise impacts on positive student learning.

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators can play a crucial role in students’ education outcomes if the right conditions are in place. They help to link student learning with local languages, cultures and communities and are also role models for post-school transition and pathways. Team-teaching practices help to bring unique capabilities to the classroom and help develop Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators’ and classroom teachers’ skills and capabilities. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators can also play an important role in growing the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander teacher workforce.

Of prime importance is that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators are recognised as belonging to the education profession, as well as for their special role as a connector to culture, Country and community.

References

ACDE Australian Council of Deans of Education, 2018, ACDE analysis of 2016 census statistics of Aboriginal Torres Strait Islander teachers and students, viewed 21 June 2021 <https://www.acde.edu.au/acde-analysis-of-2016-census-statistics-of-aboriginal-torres-strait-islander-teachers-and-students/>

ACIL Allen Consulting 2018, Indigenous Education Strategy Evaluation: Final report: Stage 1, Jan 2015-Oct 2017, viewed 1 December 2020, <https://education.nt.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/944824/IES-strategy-evaluation-final-report-stage.pdf>.

AIATSIS n.d., Living languages, viewed 27 April 2021, < https://aiatsis.gov.au/explore/living-languages>.

Anderson, C, Gower, L, & O’Dowd, M 2015, Aboriginal education workers in Tasmania becoming teachers., University of Tasmania, Hobart, viewed 1 December 2020, <https://web.archive.org/web/20190404005827/http://matsiti.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/UTAS-MATSITI-AEW-Report-July-2015.pdf>.

Armour, D 2016, Aboriginal education officers working at the cultural interface: Nguli yoo boy ngoo Yulling Ngunya, Australian Catholic University, viewed 1 December 2020, <https://researchbank.acu.edu.au/theses/663>.

Armour, D, Warren, E, & Miller, J 2016, ‘Working together: strategies that support cross-cultural engagement of Indigenous teacher assistants working in Indigenous contexts’, Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, vol. 44, no. 5, pp. 421–435, viewed 1 December 2020, <https://doi.org/10.1080/1359866X.2015.1127324>.

Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) n.d., Australian Standard Geographical Classification (ASGC) - 2006, viewed 27 April 2021, <https://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/[email protected]/Latestproducts/1AEE5890BD5B7B5ECA2571A90017901F?opendocument>.

Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) 2016, Estimates of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians, viewed 1 December 2020, <https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/aboriginal-and-torres-strait-islander-peoples/estimates-aboriginal-and-torres-strait-islander-australians/jun-2016>.

Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership (AITSL) 2011, Australian Professional Standards for Teachers, viewed 1 December 2020, <https://www.aitsl.edu.au/docs/default-source/national-policy-framework/australian-professional-standards-for-teachers.pdf>.

Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership (AITSL) 2019, Spotlight: Diversity in School Leadership, viewed 14 January 2021, <https://www.aitsl.edu.au/docs/default-source/research-evidence/spotlight/spotlight-diversity-in-school-leadership.pdf>.

Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership (AITSL) 2020, Indigenous cultural competency in the Australian teaching workforce. Discussion paper, Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership (AITSL), Melbourne, viewed 1 December 2020, <https://www.aitsl.edu.au/docs/default-source/comms/cultural-competency/aitsl_indigenous-cultural-competency_discussion-paper_2020.pdf>.

Bat, M & Shore, S 2013, Listening differently: an exploration of grey literature about Aboriginal teacher education in the Top End of the Northern Territory., Charles Darwin University, Darwin, viewed 4 November 2020, <https://www.cdu.edu.au/sites/default/files/school-education/docs/matsiti-grey-literature.pdf>.

Bat, M, Kilgariff, C, & Doe, T 2014, ‘Indigenous tertiary education – we are all learning: both-ways pedagogy in the Northern Territory of Australia’, Higher Education Research & Development, vol. 33, no. 5, pp. 871–886. <https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2014.890575>.

Brown, C et al. 2020, Gari Yala (Speak the Truth): Centreing the Work Experiences of Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander Australians, Diversity Council Australia/Jumbunna Institute, Sydney, viewed 1 December 2020, <https://www.dca.org.au/sites/default/files/dca_synopsisreport_web_0.pdf>.

Cooper, J 2008, Embedding literacy in Indigenous education through Assistant teachers: Lessons from the National Accelerated Literacy Program, The Australian Journal of Indigenous Education, vol. 37, pp. 120-129, <https://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=593615866147890;res=IELIND>.

Department of Education 2016, Assistant Teacher Professional Standards, viewed 2 December 2020, <https://www.transformingtraining.com.au/wp-content/uploads/sites/6/2015/06/BANNER_Assistant_Teacher_Professional_Standards_V1.pdf>.

Department of Education 2017, Guidelines for the implementation of Indigenous Languages and Cultures Programs in schools, viewed 15 January 2021, <https://education.nt.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/471712/indigenous-languages-and-cultures-guidelines.pdf>.

Department of Education 2018, Teach in the Territory: Teacher pathways, viewed 10 June 2021, <https://www.teachintheterritory.nt.gov.au/discover-teaching/teacher-pathways>.

Department of Education 2019, Remote teacher guide: Living and teaching in remote Northern Territory communities, viewed 1 December 2020, <https://www.teachintheterritory.nt.gov.au/sites/default/files/guide/file/remote-teacher-guideweb.pdf>.

Department of Education 2020, Annual Report 2019–20, Northern Territory Government, Darwin, <https://education.nt.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0012/943959/doe-annual-report-2019-2020.pdf>.

Education Council 2019, Alice Springs (Mparntwe) Education Declaration, viewed 1 December 2020, <http://www.educationcouncil.edu.au/site/DefaultSite/filesystem/documents/Reports%20and%20publications/Alice%20Springs%20(Mparntwe)%20Education%20Declaration.pdf>.

Gruppetta, M et al. 2018, Yarning the way: the role of Indigenous education paraprofessionals in guiding the post-school transitions of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander youth, University of Newcastle, viewed 1 December 2020, <https://www.ncsehe.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/76_MareeGruppetta_Accessible.pdf>.

Guenther, J & Osborne, S 2020, ‘Red Dirt Education Leaders “Caught in the Middle”: Priorities for Local and Nonlocal Leaders in Remote Schools’, The Australian Journal of Indigenous Education, vol. 49, no. 1, pp. 57–69.

Jackson-Barrett, E et al. 2019, ‘Skilling up: Providing educational opportunities for Aboriginal education workers through technology-based pedagogy’, Australian Journal of Teacher Education, vol. 44, no. 1, pp. 52–75, <https://10.14221/ajte.2018v44n1.4>.

Koshy, P 2016, Equity policy in Australian higher education: past, present and future, In. Hill, M. et al. (Eds.). Closing the gap: Bridges for access and lifelong learning, (pp. 277-302), Forum for Access and Continuing Education, London.

MacGill, B 2017, ‘Aboriginal community education officers’ fight for agency and equality: A historical overview’, Australian Aboriginal Studies, no. 2, pp. 56–69.

Maher, M 2013, ‘Making inclusive education happen: the impact of initial teacher education in remote Aboriginal communities’, International Journal of Inclusive Education, vol. 17, no. 8, pp. 839-853, <https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2011.602532>.

Northern Territory Board of Studies (NTBoS) 2017, Indigenous Languages and Culture Policy (E2A5).

Northern Territory Department of Education 2020, Annual Report 2019-20, viewed 27 April 2021, <https://education.nt.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0012/943959/doe-annual-report-2019-2020.pdf

Northern Territory Government 2016, Great Start Great Future Northern Territory Early Years Strategic Plan 2016-2020, viewed 7 December 2020, <https://education.nt.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/275901/DoE_Strategic-Plan.pdf>.

Office of the Commissioner for Public Employment (OCPE) 2018, Northern Territory Public Sector Teachers and Assistant Teachers’ 2017-2021 Enterprise Agreement, viewed 1 December 2020, <https://ocpe.nt.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/243994/NTPS-Teachers-and-Assistant-Teachers-2017-2021-Enterprise-Agreement.pdf>.

Peacock, H & Prehn, J 2019, ‘The importance of Aboriginal Education Workers for decolonising and promoting culture in primary schools: an analysis of the longitudinal study of Indigenous children (LSIC)’, The Australian Journal of Indigenous Education, pp. 1–7.

Productivity Comission 2012, Schools Workforce, viewed 1 February 2021, <https://www.pc.gov.au/inquiries/completed/education-workforce-schools/report/schools-workforce.pdf>.

Railton, K 2017, ‘Capacity-building approaches for teachers in remote Northern Territory schools: challenges and opportunities’, in A Lian, P Kell, P Black and Y L Koo (eds.), Challenges in global learning: dealing with education issues from an international perspective, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, Newcastle upon Tyne, pp. 176-189.

Reaburn, S, Bat, M, & Kilgariff, C 2015,‘Looking for a new common ground: a reflection on Batchelor Institute’s teacher education training programs for remote Aboriginal education professionals in the Northern Territory’, in H Huijser et al. (eds.), Finding Common Ground: Narratives, Provocations and Reflections from the 40 Year Celebration of Batchelor Institute, Batchelor Press, Darwin, NT, pp.31–42, viewed 1 December 2020, <https://www.batchelor.edu.au/biite/wp-content/uploads/Common-Ground-ebook.pdf>.

Silburn, S, Nutton, G, McKenzie, J, & Landrigan, M 2011, “Early years English language acquisition and instructional approaches for Aboriginal students with home languages other than English: a systematic review of the Australian and international literature”. Menzies School of Health Research, viewed 27 April 2021, <https://www.aph.gov.au/parliamentary_business/committees/house_of_representatives_committees?url=/atsia/languages2/subs/sub138%20attach%20a.pdf>.

Valenzuela, Angela. 2017. “Grow Your Own Educator Programs: A Review of the Literature with an emphasis on equity-based approaches.” Intercultural Development Research Association, viewed 1 December 2020, <http://www.idraeacsouth.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/Grow-Your-Own-Educator-Programs-Summary-IDRA-EAC-South-2017.pdf>.

van Gelderen, B 2017. Growing Our Own: A ‘two way’ place-based approach to Indigenous initial teacher education in remote Northern Territory, Australian and International Journal of Rural Education, vol. 27, no. 1, pp. 14–28.

Wilks, J; Dwyer, A, Wooltorton, S & Guenther, J 2020. 'We got a different way of learning': A message to the sector from Aboriginal students living and studying in remote communities, Australian Universities' Review, vol. 62, no. 2, pp. 25-38, <https://issuu.com/nteu/docs/aur_62_02 >.

Wilson, B. 2014, A share in the future: review of Indigenous education in the Northern Territory, Department of Education, Darwin, viewed 1 December 2020, <https://www.nt.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0020/229016/A-Share-in-the-Future-The-Review-of-Indigenous-Education-in-the-Northern-Territory.pdf>.

Worley, P et al. 2019, ‘The Northern Territory Medical Program – growing our own in the NT’, Rural and Remote Health, vol. 19, no. 2, p. 4671, <https://doi.org/10.22605/RRH4671>.